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Marcion, the Canon, the Law, and the Historical Jesus
A survey of Marcion's life and legacy.
by Chris Price (October 14, 2002)
It is ironic that perhaps one of the most influential of figures in Church
History is also one of the most reviled heretics: Marcion. Although his ideas
were completely rejected by the Apostolic Fathers of the second-century church,
the very need to reject them forced the second-century church to consider,
clarify, and consolidate its beliefs about important issues: the contents
of the Christian Bible (the Canon), the relationship between Christianity
and Judaism (or between Law and Grace), and finally, the source of the church's
knowledge of Jesus.
OUR SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The main sources for Marcion's life are Iranaeus, Tertullian, and Hippolytus.
But the Jewish writer Celsus also knew of Marcion and used his writings to
argue against Christianity. Robin L. Fox, Pagans and Christians, at
516. Additional information about Marcion and his followers can be gleaned
from other Christian writers who continued to engage Marcionites centuries
after his death.
Marcion's major work was entitled Antithesis and has not survived.
This is not due to an intentional cleansing or burning by Orthodox Christians.
It is simply the result of the passage of time. The writings of religious
groups that became extinct were largely doomed to extinction themselves because
writing materials of that time simply did not last very long. Without eager
new generations of scribes willing to recopy aging texts, it is very unlikely
that any manuscripts would survive.
MARCION GOES TO ROME
Marcion was actually born into a Christian family. His father was a Christian
bishop. He was born in Sinope, Asia Minor in about 85 CE. Marcion was a wealthy
merchant and shipowner. After being accused of "defiling a virgin" and reportedly
excommunicated by the church in Sinope, Marcion left Asia Minor and moved
to Rome in about 135 CE. Perhaps to ensure his acceptance in the Roman Church
after his misdeeds in Asia Minor, Marcion gave the Roman Church 200,000 sesterces
(a very sizable gift) upon his arrival. At first, Marcion was accepted by
the Roman Church.
However, it soon became obvious that his teachings were a radical departure
from traditional Christianity. Marcion came under the influence of the gnostic
teacher Cedro "who believed that the God of the Old Testament was different
from the God and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ. The God of the Old Testament
was unknowable; the latter had been revealed." Marcion, by Dermot McDonald,
in The History of Christianity, at 104-105. Cedro also stressed the
existence of "secret knowledge" from Jesus that had not been previously made
public (a common claim among gnostics). Marcion adopted these ideas into
his "heretical" brand of Christianity.
MARCION'S TEACHINGS
Marcion's teachings departed from traditional Christianity in a number
of ways. Most dramatically, perhaps, Marcion rejected the idea that the Old
Testament God and the New Testament God were the same being. Up until then,
the traditional Church had considered the Old Testament to be sacred and
assumed that Christianity was a fulfillment or continuation of Judaism. Marcion's
rejection of that idea affected many different doctrines and beliefs.
Marcion's Own Canon of Scripture
Marcion faced an uphill battle with his revolutionary ideas. He faced
a pretty obvious problem. For more than 100 years, Christians had been using
the Old Testament as Christian Scripture, and even the most sacred documents
of Christians referred to and relied heavily on, the Old Testament. The solution
for Marcion was to completely reject the Old Testament and establish a canon
that de-emphasized Christianity's Old Testament and Jewish roots as much
as possible.
Paul, with his focus on free grace, was by far Marcion's favorite Apostle.
As a result, he rejected the writings attributed to all the other Apostles
and relied on forms of Luke's Gospel and ten Pauline epistles that he redacted.
Although a small number of scholars have, from time to time, argued that
Marcion may have had access to earlier forms of the gospels (especially Luke),
even John Knox, the most prominent promoter of this theory, admits that Marcion
intentionally and knowingly excised as much Old Testament and Jewish influence
as he could find in the Paulines and Gospel of Luke. "That Marcion, for example,
did not have the account of John the Baptist's announcement of Jesus as Messiah
or the story of Jesus' temptation is almost certainly to be accounted for
by Marcion's omission of these passages. Not only are they inconsistent with
Marcion's theological position but (more important) they are also deeply
imbedded in the Synotpic tradition, and to explain them as late additions
to a Gospel which was already dependent (as Marcion's was) upon that tradition
is next to impossible." John Knox, Marcion and the New Testament, at 95.
The scope of Marcion's redactions is large. As Dr. Fisher explained, Marcion
rejected "the entire Old Testament, [and] settled for Luke's Gospel (eliminating
chapters 1 & 2 as too Jewish) and Paul's letters (except for the pastoral
ones)." "The Canon of the New Testament," by Milton Fisher, in The Origin of the Bible,
ed. Philip Comfort, at 71. Beyond chapters 1 and 2 of Luke, Marcion also
removed Luke 4:1-3 (temptation narrative that refers to Dueteronomy 3 times),
Luke 4:16-30 (Jesus claiming—while teaching in a synagogue—that his ministry
was a fulfillment of the Old Testament), Luke 5:39 ("The old is good"), and
Luke 8:19 (reference to Jesus' family). All of these verses were just too
Jewish and conflicted too much with Marcion's heresies.
Significantly, Marcion also took a scalpel to Paul's letters, eliminating
as many positive references to Judaism or the Old Testament as possible.
"Marcion dealt with the text of Paul's letters in the same way as with the
text of Luke's gospel: anything which appeared inconsistent with what he
believed to be authentic Pauline teaching was regarded as a corruption proceeding
from an alien hand." F.F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture, at 140. The
mention of Abraham as an example of faith was eliminated from Galatians (3:6-9),
as well as the connection between the law and the gospels (3:15-25). He removed
Romans 1:19-21:1, 3:21-4:25, and most of Romans 9-11, and everything after
Romans 14:23.
Additionally, Marcion simply altered the content of many verses in Luke
and Paul's letters to soften the connection with Judaism. For example, in
place of "Thy Kingdom Come" in the Lord's Prayer (Luke 11:2), Marcion's gospel
stated, "Let they Holy Spirit come on us and cleanse us." Bruce, The Canon of Scripture,
at 138. In Ephesians, he changed, "the mystery hidden for ages in God who
created all things" (3:9) to "the mystery hidden for ages from the God who
created all things." Id. at 139. This simple little change has the creating
God being duped by the God of the New Testament.
Two Different Gods
Once Marcion had rewritten the Christian scriptures, he could make his
case. Or, as Robin Lane Fox writes, "[b]y rewriting scripture, he presented
a powerful case." Fox, Pagans and Christians, at 332. His theology
was a tremendous departure from that of the Christian churches in which he
had grown up. Key to his theology was the notion that there were actually
two "Gods." One of these "Gods" was the God of the Old Testament. He was
a completely different—and indeed a lesser—entity than the God of the New
Testament. Jesus was the product of the New God. This God was not Jehovah,
but the "unknown God" referred to by Paul in Acts in his speech in Athens.
"Marcion shocked the Church by denying any connection between the Gods
of the Old and New Testament. . . . The creator, he argued, was an incompetent
being: why else had he afflicted women with the agonies of childbirth? 'God'
in the Old Testament was a 'committed barbarian' who favored bandits and
such terrorists as Israel's King David. Christ, by contrast, was the new
and separate revelation of an altogether higher God. Marcion's teaching was
the most extreme statement of the newness of the Christian faith. Combined
with virginity and a rejection of marriage, it became 'Marcionism' and continued
to attract followers especially in the Syriac-speaking East, far into the
Fourth Century." Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, at 332.
So Marcion taught that the God of the Old Testament was not the God of
the New Testament. The God of the Old Testament was the "creating God," but
he was harsh, cruel, and incompetent. Marcion contrasted this creating God
with the God of Jesus, who was nothing less than love and grace.
Jesus Not the Expected Messiah and Not Human
Marcion's revolutionary thoughts on the identity of God were accompanied
by a just as revolutionary idea about the identity of Jesus and his relationship
to God. Marcion "adopted the Gnostic idea of Demiurge and thought Christ
only 'appeared' to be human. . . ." Although Jesus "revealed the God of love
and forgiveness [t]here will be no resurrection of the flesh, second coming,
or judgment by Christ. Marcion vehemently repudiated the idea of a Judgment.
According to him, the God of the Old Testament was to have sent a messiah
to collect the chosen people into the Kingdom to rule over the whole earth
and to exercise judgment over sinners. But at this point God appeared, showing
mercy on sinners and freeing all from the bonds of the God of the Jews."
Hinson, The Early Church, at 92.
In other words, while the creating God of the Old Testament was preparing
to send a messiah that would establish an earthly Kingdom, the new God acted
more quickly by sending Jesus to teach love and mercy for all. There would
be no judgment, no bodily resurrection, and no second coming of Jesus. The
purpose of Jesus was to free people from the bondage of the Jewish God, not
from the bonds of sinful nature.
Tertullian described Marcion's beliefs as the following:
"Marcion laid down the position that Christ, who in the days of Tiberius
was, by a previously unknown god, revealed for the salvation of all nations,
is a different being from him who was ordained God, the Creator for the restoration
of a Jewish state, and who is yet to come. Between these, he interposes a
separation of a great and absolute difference as great as lies between what
is just and what is good, as great as lies between the law and the gospel,
as great as is the difference between Christianity and Judaism." Against Marcion, IV.6.
Marriage and Sex
Despite sounding almost antinomian, Marcion and his followers were actually
very strict. "Curiously, Marcion also preached strict ascetism, denied the
right of marriage, and formulated stern regulations concerning fasting."
Hinson, The Early Church, at 92. This was not unusual in an of itself.
"During the second and third centuries, many heretical groups taught that
marriage was Satanic and akin to fornication; some connected it with the
work of an inferior creator. Followers of Marcion spoke of the body as a
'nest of guilt'. Several sayings were ascribed to Jesus in which he reviled
and praised the androgynous state of man at creation." Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians,
at 358. Needless to say, Marcionite commitment to complete celibacy was to
have a big impact on the Marcionite sect's ability to sustain itself.
CHRISTIAN REACTION
Marcion's teachings were rejected by his church and the Apostolic Fathers
who were leading the other Apostolic Churches. "To any church leader, Marcion's
heresy was the most shocking deviation from Apostolic truth. He had denied
the Old Testament's inspiration and the continuity of the God and Creator
with Christ. Bishop Polycarp had known how to deal with him. When Polycarp
met Marcion, said Polycarp's pupil Iraneaus, he had greeted him as 'the first
born child of satan.'" Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, at 492.
Marcion was expelled from the Roman Church in 144 CE. They were so adamant
about rejecting his teachings that they even returned the generous donation
he had given them. "Marcion's departure was a heavy financial blow to the
Rome Church and his money enabled him to attract a huge following in the
East." Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity, at 47. Thereafter,
Marcion used those funds and attempted to emulate Paul by engaging in missionary
activities to spread his new version of Christianity. Marcion met with some
success. As Tertullian put it, he planted churches "as wasps make nests."
He left churches in Rome, Carthage, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Phyrygia, Gartyna,
Antioch, and in Syria.
Apparently, Marcion's churches—despite being built on a complete rejection
of legalism or the law—were very rigorous about membership. Only a few were
ultimately deemed worthy to receive baptism and become members of his churches.
It eventually only established a lasting presence in Syria, but it died out
completely by the mid-to-late 300s. As Professor Johnson stated, "belief
in celibacy necessarily proves fatal to a heretical movement." Id. at 47.
Still, the fact that the movement lasted more than 150 years based on conversions
alone shows that Marcion's ideas had a strong appeal.
THE IMPACT OF MARCION
The impact of the Marcionite controversy on Church History on three issues
was tremendous. First, the establishment of an Orthodox Christian Canon of
Scripture (the New Testament). Second, Christianity's embracing its Jewish
heritage. Third, the Church's reliance on the "Apostolic Tradition."
The Christian Canon
Marcion's choice of a highly selective canon and his mutilation of Christian
scriptures forced the Church to specifically identify its own writings. In
some ways, Marcion is the first person we know of to establish a "canon"—that
is, to specify exactly which writings were "in" and which were "out." In
so doing, he spurred the traditional Church to specify what is considered
to be the canon. "The heretic Marcion, by defending a limited canon of his
own (c. 140) in effect hastened the day when the Orthodox believers needed
to declare themselves on this issue." Fisher, "The Canon of the New Testament,"
in The Origin of the Bible, ed. Philip Comfort. The Church eventually
responded by embracing the Four Gospels: Mark, Luke (fully restored), Matthew,
and John. The Church also embraced all of the Apostles, not just Paul. This
lead to acceptance of the Johaninne Epistles, the Epistle of James, and the
Epistles of Peter. As a result, the Church embraced a much broader theology
and perspective than that envisioned by Marcion.
Christianity's Relationship with Judaism
Marcion's complete rejection of any link between Judaism and Christianity,
the Law and the Gospel, forced the church to conclusively link Christianity
to its Jewish predecessor, and the Gospel to the Law. As Prof. Hinson states,
"No early Christian thinker, heterodox or orthodox, did more than Marcion
to bring to a head the question of Christianity's relation to Judaism." The Early Church, at 9.
These early Christians realized that Christianity was not a separate revelation
from Judaism, but the fulfillment of Judaism's promise. N.T. Wright explains
that even Marcion's focus on Paul and his focus on grace and freedom as representing
a complete departure was fundamentally flawed:
"Some readers, starting at least with Marcion in the second century, have
seen this as evidence that [Paul] abandoned the Jewish Story altogether,
embracing a quite different symbolic universe. . . . But Paul's fundamental
narrative would give no deep echo to that of paganism in any of its first-century
or other forms. It continues to resonate with the Story of Israel. Because
Israel's story speaks of a creator god who claims all people, all lands,
as his own, Paul is able to reach out from within that story and address
Jews and Gentiles. He thus claims that the story of Jesus fulfills the purpose
for which the creator God called Abraham in the first place." N.T. Wright,
The New Testament and the People of God, at 407.
As a result, the Christian Canon includes the Old and New Testaments,
and Christianity respects the Law while recognizing the powerful work of
Grace Jesus accomplished on the Cross. Indeed, it is probable that the only
way to fully appreciate Jesus' accomplishment on the cross is to recognize
the validity of the law.
The Apostolic Tradition
Marcion's reliance (and that of other gnostics) on "secret knowledge"
was met with a forceful commitment to the "Apostolic Tradition." Marcion
was not the only such figure arguing for "secret knowledge." Others such
as Valentenius also stressed that they possessed knowledge that had secretly
been passed down to them from the Apostles or Jesus. The Church reacted by
rejecting this idea of a "secret knowledge" that was really just manufactured
by gnostic leaders. Instead, the Church committed itself to the "Apostolic
Tradition." The Apostolic Tradition was considered to be the publically proclaimed
message of the Church since its existence. It could also be called a rudimentary
commitment to the "historical Jesus." This commitment was to give the Church
a standard to which it was subordinate: the New Canon contained the public
professions of the Apostles. Church teaching must be based on that standard,
rather than on newly discovered or revealed teachings that no one had heard
before.
Conclusion
In many ways, Marcion caused the Orthodox Church to be more moderate.
The Church had to acknowledge its Jewish roots and embrace Jewish literature,
without forfeiting its Christian revelation. The Church acknowledged that
Jesus brought grace and freedom, but refused to descend into antinomianism
or reject the idea that the law had any moral instruction to offer. The Church
was staunchly opposed to fornication and adultery, but accepted that sex
within marriage and procreation were moral and necessary. All in all, despite
his obvious heresy, Marcion's impact on Church History actually was largely
positive.
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